International Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 12

International Business - Essay Example - Labor Quality is simply defined by the education, skills, sincerity towards work and the attitudes of the available employees in a particular organization. Along with these key aspects, labor quality also measures the domain knowledge, creativity, soft skills such as leadership and managerial quality, and most importantly, the ability of the labor forces to learn as well as adapt themselves with the change in the work environment. Therefore, it is essential to analyze the labor force before finalizing business contracts and expanding the business internationally, so that the right skills are available in order to conduct the business profitably. The price of labor is affected by supplies of labor, lack of labor unions, lower demand for labor and the lack of rules and regulations of the government. (How Do Labor Forces Influence International Business?, n.d.) Labor Quantity - Labor Quantity, another significant aspect of labor force, which can influence the labor force both positively and negatively. It is actually the number of potential employees that are available in an organization, who possess the necessary skills to be efficient and productive employees, in order to meet the business needs of the employer. The quantity of labor force is very important for an international business as a country with large number of qualified and well educated employees is beneficial for the company, as it can hire educated and qualified employees for comparatively low wages. In comparison, if there is limited number of educated and qualified employees in a particular country, then a company is compelled to pay higher wages in order to employ quality labor. (How Do Labor Forces Influence International Business?, n.d.) Labor Mobility - Labor Mobility is defined as the movement of people from one country to the other, or from one area to other area, for the search of jobs; it also refers to occupational mobility. A company’s productivity increases with the increased

Servant Leadership Integrative Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Servant Leadership Integrative Project - Essay Example Transformational leadership style is composed of so many components (Margaret 2013). The components of transformational leadership are well highlighted below; Intellectual stimulation This of component transformational style encourages creativity and innovation among the people who follow this style. The transformational leaders challenge the members who follow them and arouse them to identify new gaps and learn from that. The local churches can as well adapt this form of transformational style so that they identify the areas or points that they may need to strengthen to enable them develop and spread the gospel further (Larry 2002). Individualized or subjective consideration Under this component of transformational leadership, it is important to note that the transformational leaders give personal assistance to the individual followers. The followers can access the services they would require from the followers. They have ensured that there is transparency in the means and modes of communication between the leaders and the followers. This has helped as the followers can now see that the leaders acknowledge the efforts that they make towards the team. The local churches have always shown this especially in the cases where the church members would wish to have prayer requests at their residential places and thank God that the God sent servants have never let them down. The servants do this because the word of the Lord is free and to make the members see that the efforts that they put in the church are acknowledged (Mitsuru 2011). Inspirational motivation Transformational leaders have well set goals and missions that have boosted the loyalty of the members. The members therefore have developed a strong passion for the team thereby contributing much for the benefit of the team. In the local churches, the leaders have to be goal oriented of which the goal is spreading the gospel and they should not involve themselves in other activities that can send the people awa y from the Lord. They should therefore conduct themselves in an inspiring and a manner that is quite motivating (Rhonda 2011). Idealized influence Transformational leaders can serve as the moral icons fir their followers. Any move they take will therefore be highly copied and emulated by their followers. It is therefore important to highlight that they should conduct themselves well so that the picture that comes after they are seen is a positive one to the followers. The leaders in the local churches should therefore be on the forefront of inflicting good moral values to the people. This is another way of accomplishing the work of the Lord (Larry 2002). It is very important to highlight that transformational form of leadership has various core values that, are the propulsive forces that that back up the mission as well as the visional duties of the servants of God. The core or rather the main values of transformational style of leadership are highlighted below; Courage Transformati onal style of leadership needs a lot of courage for success to be realized in any mission that you undertake. With this, the servant has to be ready to take the risk and as well bear them. Courage must be supported with good will and positivity in any circumstance you choose to go for. Courageous servants of the biblical work mission have the potential of overcoming any temptation that may come their way. The missionary work of God

A detailed assignment examining Leadership style management

A detailed assignment examining Leadership style management Leadership is the behavior of an individual when he/she is directing the activities of a group towards a shared goal. A leader is seen as someone who sets the paths in an effort to influence people to adhere to those paths. Leadership is an action and not just a position. It can be shown via different people in various situations. A person is not born to be a leader but cultured through the upbringing and environment. A leaders personal characteristics are also vital for the developments and motivations of the organizations. True leaders such as the teachers who illustrated that leadership is an action (teaching and leading the students) and not a position. Touching the lives and affecting the outcome of many different expectations, a teacher is the epitome of a leader. A leader has his or her own style of motivating the people in the organizations. A leader must find the best skills in order to provide directions, motivations and purposes. Effective leaders are flexible. Organizational Leadership Model The effective leadership influence is not the same for everyone. It depends on their ranks in the organization and abilities which are required in leaders. The three basic leadership roles identified: initiation, speech, and management. 1. Initiation Initiation refers to planned decision making on policy formulation or structural change. These vital decisions are the determinants of the organizations culture and mission. 2. Speech Strategic decisions and methods designed for implementation within the establishment. It includes adjusting or adding on to the present structure towards new policy demands. 3. Management Management is putting into practice the policies and measures that are available to maintain the operations of the organization efficiently. These three kinds of Leadership are naturally executed at diverse ranks in the company with different abilities and skills. The top level management would initiate new policies that involve a change in the businesss structure or understanding the companys mission. An understanding of the entire organization, culture, mission, vision and how it correlates with the external parties is mandatory for these top level individuals. They represent the organization and what the business stands for. Understanding the policy decisions and practicing them to the existing organization via utterance or speech is usually made by the intermediate-level managers. They must uphold a two-way point of reference by taking orders from the above management and adapting them for the lower groups of people in the organization. Type of Leadership Process Typical Organizational Level Cognitive (Knowledge) Affective (Emotion) Initiation: Change, creation and elimination of structure Top echelons System perspective Charisma Speech: supplementing and piecing out of structure Intermediate levels: pivotal roles Subsystem perspective: two-way orientation Integration of primary and secondary relations: human relation skills Management: use of existing structure Lower levels Technical knowledge and understanding of system of rules Concern with equity in use of rewards and sanctions EXHIBIT 16.1 Three Leadership Patterns, Their Location in the Organization, and Their Skill Requirements The companys policies and procedures will be administered by the Lower-level supervisors. These personnel must possess both the technical knowledge and a clear perception of the organizations rules in order to be successful. They have to continually deal with issues such as equity, rewards and punishments in leading others. Therefore, leadership plays a crucial role in an organization because the it has direct impact on the effectiveness of the organizations. Leadership is when a person manipulates others to perform a task at their own will which they would not normally do. Leadership is a vital process to an organization and it can be deliberated on three different stages; i.e. the individual, group and organization. Analysis at the individual stage: the leadership studies have paid attention on the successful leader personalities. Behaviors of both formal and informal leaders are focused at the group level. The effectiveness of an organization is decided by the relations between the leader, follower and circumstances. The studies have caused an emergence of different theories of leadership, namely situational and contingency. In Search for Leadership The requirements in selecting and training efficient leaders were emphasized during the World War I and the quarter century between World War l and World War II; numerous studies were made to examine the personal characteristics of good leaders. These studies are usually referred as characteristic studies since the primary goal was to classify the traits and personal characteristics of successful leaders. The diverse methods used to study these leadership traits could possibly be the reason in the irregularities of the results. The manner of studies was not consistent in identifying the leaders. A majority of the studies was in comparing efficient with inefficient leaders or leaders with non-leaders. Some were identified by external observers, others selected by the group by way of recommendation or voting, nominated by observers such as teachers while some were chosen because they are already in leadership positions. The studies conducted were in conflict as to the way they deliberated on the traits. Some traits were measured by mental tests; others relied on viewers to spot the traits they have seen while some depended on the persons to report their own personality traits. The trait studies were quite unsatisfactory as a whole especially since they had hoped to develop an accurate measure of leadership effectiveness. The spotlight on the leadership research moved because of the flimsy results, to contingency studies which investigated more than just traits of a leader. Numerous traits formed an important divergence in leadership effectiveness and they interrelated with other conditional variables to stimulate the effectiveness of the leader. Physical Behaviors Physical attributes including height, weight, health and appearance are also examined in the studies. It was concluded that there is a relationship between the above features and leadership. Apparently leaders have the tendency to be taller, heavier, better fitness, greater physique, higher energy output and more attractive in appearance. However, these types of results were not always reliable and consistent. The results neither are too weak in general and not consistent to be effective in selecting leaders nor are they helpful for training functions since not much can be made to alter most of these physical traits. Intellect It was generally agreed that leaders are more intellectual than non-leaders and the relationship was shown in the various studies. The relationship could probably begin from the reality that leadership functions depend mostly on success in problem solving. Leadership roles such as initiation, speech and management necessitate great mental ability. In general, it is safe to assume that leaders seems to be more intelligent than non-leaders but the relationships are small. Many other variables other than intellect inspire leadership effectiveness. It was also suggested that leaders should not be too intelligent than the group because associates who are notably brilliant than others are rarely chosen as leaders since the other members tend to snub them. Individuals with high IQs are inclined to have different sets of vocabulary, networks and aspirations that would create communication and inter-relations problems. Leaders do extremely well generally at school/college/university and score better grades. It is important for effective leadership to know how to do things. Thus general and practical knowledge are essential for leaders to make better decisions. Characteristic Traits Only a partial of the characteristic traits seem to be related to leadership and most are not especially convincing. It was suggested that the average leader is more used to social displays, greater initiative, persistent, knows how to get things done, self-confident, are more cooperative and adaptable, and possesses excellent communication skills. Leaders were found to be more emotionally mature than non-leaders in the personality integration or emotional adjustment. It can be concluded that personal characteristics are related to leadership. Effective leadership does not depend on a mixture of personality traits only because situational variables are also important since they always decide whether a character was associated with effective leadership either positively or negatively. Therefore, it can deduced that effective leadership depends on the leaders characteristics, his subordinates and the nature of the task at hand. Many leadership styles were based on studies of leaders behaviors. The finest researches on the styles of leadership are made together at the same time; i.e. The Ohio State University and the University of Michigan. Researchers acknowledged two leader behaviors that were similar although the investigations were conducted separately. As a result, a two dimensional aspects of leadership have been to used to form the Managerial Grid. Authoritarian, Democratic, and Laissez-faire Leadership Due to the diverse political systems in the US and Germany before World War II inspired studies of leadership which evaluated three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic, and laissez faire. In the democratic leadership style, decisions were made by vote of majority; equal participation encouraged; criticism and punishment minimal. In the autocratic leader, the leader made all the decisions and others must follow the set procedures strictly. In the laissez-faire leader, there was minimal actual leadership and others were permitted to work and play as usual without proper directives. Initiating Structure and Consideration The two leadership factors were initiating structure and consideration which include leadership behaviors in organizing and defining the tasks to be performed and goal achievements. A leader who assigns people to do specific jobs, expected workers to follow set routines and meet deadlines. The consideration factor is showing friendship, mutual trust, warmth and concern for subordinates. Production-Centered and Employee-Centered Leader Behaviors Production centered behaviors were akin to initiating structure in which leaders would establish targets, gave directives, checked on operations and planned the group Employees work. Centered behaviors were similar to the considerations dimension in which the leader would develop a caring personal relationship with the subordinates and encouraged a two-way communication with them. The relationship between production-centered and employee centered behaviors are found to be independent scopes of leadership. A leader with strong production orientation does not mean that he is disinterested in the employees. Managerial Grid Robert Blake and Jane Mouton had created a framework which combines a concern for task accomplishment and a concern for people called the Managerial Grid. They both assumed that concern for production and concern for people would produce the most effective leadership style. There are leaders primarily more concerned with accomplishing the production and task not concerned about people. This person wants the job done and schedule followed at all costs. There is also individual who is not concerned whether the group produces anything but concerned more about the personal needs and interests of the team members. Ideally, leaders should be concerned about meeting schedules in order to get the work done and simultaneously are concerned about the team members interest and feelings too. The Managerial Grid is popular among managers. It is extensively used by organisations as part of their training program to assess leadership style. However, the effectiveness of the Managerial Grid is not consistently supported. The factors which are considered in determining leadership styles interact in complicated ways which resulted in various leadership styles. SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP In assessing leadership effectiveness, there are many factors that must be combined. Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed a situational leadership model which considers three variables: (1) guidance and direction provided by the leaders (task behavior) (2)emotional support given by the leader (relationship behavior) (3) the maturity level exhibited in performing the task As a result, four potential leadership styles have been created using a combination of the above factors : S1: Telling Give instructions and supervise performance closely. Suited for followers who are unwilling but of low maturity. S2: Selling Decide and provide opportunity for explanation. Appropriate for followers who are not able but willing. S3: Participating Sharing ideas in making decisions. Suited for followers who are able but not willing. S4: Delegating Responsibility handed over for decisions and performance. Appropriate for groups who are able and willing. Contingency Theory of Leadership Fiedler studied the interaction of leadership style and situation. He identified and developed ways to measure leadership orientation of the leader and situational factors which influence leadership. Leader Orientation Two types of leaders were identified, i.e. relationship-oriented or task-oriented. Leaders who are relationship-oriented tend to look at others as coworkers and look upon interpersonal relations as a requirement towards accomplishing the task. However, for task-oriented leaders, they react strongly against people whom they could not get along with in performing a task. Situational favorableness (1) relationships between leader and member can be good or bad; (2) the task is relatively well planned or not; and (3) the leaders authority is relatively strong or weak. The task structure becomes the second most important situational variable as evaluated by judges who examined four aspects of the task structure. Clarity: whether requirements of the tasks are stated clearly, Multiplicity: which the problems encounter can be solved. Verifiability: which the correctness of the decisions can be ascertained. Specificity: which there are generally more solutions involved in performing the task. Group effectiveness Relationship-oriented leaders perform excellently well in situations where concern for the team members is apparently necessary in order to motivate them to perform well. People naturally prefer leaders who care about them and their welfare. However, task-oriented leaders are clearly more effective in impossible situations. Path-Goal Model Directive leadership: subordinates are told what to be expected. Specific guide, standards and work schedules are provided to ensure that task are performed as expected. Supportive leadership: subordinates are treated equally and show concern for their needs and well-being; develop pleasant interpersonal relationships among the group members. Achievement-oriented leadership: challenging goals are set and subordinates are expected to perform at their highest level, improvement in performance always. Participative leadership: subordinates are consulted on suggestions and ideas in making decisions. Situational factors Situational factors characteristics of the followers and environmental factors which affect leadership style. Significant characteristics of the followers which have been identified as determinants of leadership style are: (1). Followers with internal locus of control believe that they are rewarded for their own effort. Meanwhile, followers with external locus of control believe that external forces have a control on their rewards. (2). Authoritarianism: an individuals willingness to accept the influence of others. (3). Abilities: The followers ability and experience influence a leader whether they are able to work with an achievement oriented leader or a supportive leader who are patient enough to provide encouragement and instruction. The path-goal model recognises three environmental factors which effect leadership styles: the nature of the task to be performed, the existing organisations authority system the organisational norms and dynamics The above factors may influence the effectiveness of different leadership styles in a many ways. Normative Decision-Making Model of Leadership Based on the contingency theory of leadership, this leadership model does not assume any leadership style as appropriate for all situations. Leaders must develop a range of leadership styles and take on the most appropriate style depending on the situation. Leaders are required to know in which circumstances they need to consult others and vice versa. Even though the leader may be the chairman of the group, he is just one of the group members and does not try to influence the group to adopt a particular solution. Criteria for selecting a leadership style. Two criteria used for assessing the efficiency of a leadership style are quality and acceptance. The quality of the decisions made refers to the accurateness of the actions taken and the extent which some objectives are achieved. The quality of decisions depends on accurate and relevant information Conferring with other group members often provides additional information. Diagnostic decision rules. In order to save time and minimize costs, some managers choose the lead autocratically. If the aim was to further the subordinates personal development, the participative style is selected. In some strategies, the manager decides alone. At times, the manager decides on his own after earlier consultations with his subordinates. Comparing the leadership models. All situational leadership models emphasize on the effect of external factors on a particular leadership style. Different leadership styles suggest styles that are determined by various situational factors. The models focus on different methods, which are situational factors and criteria for selecting the best style: task-oriented versus relationship-oriented. The normative decision-making model ascertains three leadership styles, namely autocratic, consultative, and participative. In each model, situational factors which influence the effectiveness of leadership are somewhat different. A significant reason being that normative decision- making model equates leadership with making decisions and looks at only this leadership function. The models also use different criteria for evaluating leadership effectiveness. DETERMINANTS OF LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS Although identifying what makes an effective leader seems like a simple task, however, individuals who are in leadership positions are often faced with a dilemma on deciding which leadership pattern to practice. Choosing a Leadership Style Choosing the most appropriate leadership style to adopt depends largely on the context of the organisation. A successful leader must be capable of assessing the situational forces in the organisation and respond accordingly to the needs. The forces include the organisation culture, business goals as well as the organisations strategic plans. Effective leaders must understand themselves, the group, company and social environment. Strategies for Improving Leadership One of the main variable to improve leadership relates largely to the organisations reward system. Leaders should not overlook his capacity to reward his followers accordingly since followers will respond otherwise. For instance, the managers of high- performing groups generally are compensated according to their achievements. Considerate leaders manage to create satisfaction among their performing subordinates while at the same time, changes in the behavior of the leaders could be caused by the performance of the subordinates. Constraints on leader behavior. Leaders have limited opportunities to influence others. Leadership effectiveness is inhibited by a variety of factors. For example, the managerial decisions are planned ahead because of the law, structure, technological specifications and the absence of alternatives. Many other organisational factors can impose limitations on the leaders capability to either communicate with or to reinforce the behavior of the subordinates. For example, organisational policies, nature of task, skills and abilities of available resources and other external factors may impede the capacities of organisational leaders. External factors. In terms of external factors, leaders are constrained by factors that they have no control on such as state and federal laws. Other external factors include the world economy and global issues. Irrespective of their leadership style, leaders with unskilled resources will face great challenges in leading. The availability of skilled followers is subjected to the external labor market. Organizational policies. The organization may limit a leaders effectiveness by hampering the amount of communication between leaders and followers. The existing company policies may also pose restrictions on the ability of leaders to reward or punish followers. Group factors. Leaders may find it hard to penetrate or influence group members who are highly unified. This will create difficulty for leaders to demonstrate his true capabilities in performing tasks for the organisation. Individual skills and abilities. The leaders own skills and abilities may act as constraints since leaders can only possess so much expertise, energy, and power. Some situations may simply require greater skills and abilities than the leader may possibly hope to possess. Substitutes for leadership. While some situations constrain leaders other situations make leadership unnecessary. These variables are referred to as substitute variables because they substitute for leadership either by making the leaders behavior unnecessary or by neutralizing the leaders ability to influence subordinates. Leadership is an extremely important function. It has an enormous influence on the value of groups and organizations. The complexity of the situation, however, may prevent us from knowing in advance which will be the most effective leadership behaviors. SUMMARY 1. Leadership refers to increasing influence which occur when an individual manipulates others to do tasks voluntarily which they would not do otherwise. The basic leadership roles include initiation of policy and structure, speech, and management. A need for leadership within organizations stems from the incompleteness of the organization design and the dynamic nature of the internal and external environments. 2. The studies of leadership were mainly studies on traits that tried to identify the characteristics of effective leaders. The studies focused mainly on physical traits, intellect and characteristic. The results were usually weak and inconsistent although some personal characteristics were always related to leadership. Most studies concluded that the characteristics of the subordinate and the nature of the task were as important as the characteristics of the leader in determining success. 3. Another approach to studying leadership set on leader behaviors; i.e. how leaders actually behave. One of the studies compared three leadership styles: authoritarian, democratic and laissez-faire. Although democratic leadership produced the greatest satisfaction, autocratic leadership had the highest levels of productivity. 4. Research conducted simultaneously at two universities identified two similar leadership behaviors. At The Ohio State University the researchers labeled these two leader behaviors initiating structure and consideration. At the University of Michigan the same two factors were labeled production-centered and employee-centered leader behaviors. These two leader behaviors appear to identify leadership functions essential to the effectiveness of a group. The two Factors have been used to form a matrix called the Managerial Grid which places a concern for production on one side of the grid and concern for people on the other. The research evidence does not support this conclusion consistently. 5. The unsuccessful research to identify leadership traits or universally superior leader behaviors caused an emergence of development of four situational theories of leadership. The theories suggest that the most effective leadership style depends upon situational variables particularly the characteristics of the group and the nature of the task. 6. A situational leadership model that matched different combinations of task behavior and relationship behavior with the maturity of the followers. As the followers increase, the appropriate leadership style is telling, selling, participating, and finally for highly mature followers, delegating. 7. The most appropriate leadership style was determined by assessing three situational variables: whether the relationships between the leader and the members were good or poor, the task was structured or unstructured, and the power position of the leader was strong or weak. When these three situational variables created an extremely favorable or extremely unfavorable situation, the most effective leadership style was a task-oriented leader. However, where there were intermediate levels of favorableness, a leader with a high concern for interpersonal relationships was more effective in these situations. 8. The path goal model theory is derived from expectancy theory. It suggests that effective leaders must clarify the target paths and increase its attractiveness for followers. Four distinct leadership styles are proposed in the model: directive, supportive achievement-oriented and participative leadership styles. The style most appropriate depends upon two types of situational factors: the characteristics of the follower and characteristics of the environment. Three of the most important follower characteristics include the locus of control, authoritarianism, and personal abilities. The three environmental factors include the nature of the task, the formal authority system within the organization, and the group norms and dynamics. 9. The three leadership styles include autocratic decision making, consultative decision making, and group decision making. The decision titles determining which style is most appropriate include such questions as whether the leader has adequate information to make the decision alone, whether the subordinates will accept the goals of the organization, whether subordinates will accept the decision if they do not participate in making it, and whether the decision will produce a controversial solution. 10. The influence of the group upon the leader should not be overlooked. The relationship between the leader and the group implies a reciprocal influence. Groups have the capacity to influence the behavior of their leaders by responding selectively to specific leader behaviors. The influence of a leader can also be constrained by several external factors, such as organizational policies, group norms, and individual skills and abilities. Other variables have been found to neutralize or substitute for the influence of a leader, such as the skills and abilities of followers and the nature of the task itself. POSITIONING ON LEADERSHIP CRISIS There are many leadership theories. Arthur G. Jago (1982) had proposed a framework that organizes leadership theories based on each theorys focus and approach. Focus refers to whether the leadership is seen as a set of traits or actions. There is a universal formula of traits or behavior for an effective leader. However, effective leadership also depends on specific situations. The kinds of behaviors that leaders can actually perform in a group. The two leader behaviors that have been consistently observed including task-related activities, called initiating structure or production-centered activities, and interpersonal relations activities, sometimes called consideration or employee-centered activities. The incremental influence that one individual exerts upon another and that causes the second person to change his or her behavior voluntarily. Three leadership roles include origination of the structure by top-level managers, interpolation or adapting the structure by middle-level managers and administration or implementation of the policies and procedures by lower-level supervisors. I concur with A. Ange on the presence of leadership crisis but I also foresee the resolutions taken and are still being taken to resolve the problem. Many organizations are spending money in sending their employees to be groomed and trained for future growth of the company whereby they are exposed to different methods of management and how to be great leaders. Leaders are born to leaders but in some circumstances, situations and environments also play a huge role in creating a leader. Leaders come and go and new ones are always on the threshold to take over the empty space. The qualities of the leaders and their leadership styles vary but they are vital in the development and motivation processes of the organizations. There is a crisis in good leadership but it is not at a critical point. Big organizations would have everything in place for the future growth of the company and would have in line the replacements for all aspects of the management. Even is small to medium sized organizations have planned their management line-ups for the future. The ongoing programs and trainings that are conducted by organizations to produce capable leaders and groom them further showed that companies are aware of the could be crisis and had taken steps to overcome the situation. Yes, there is a crisis but the severity of the crisis is not huge enough to cause panics throughout the organizations.

Educating Rita :: English Literature

Educating Rita Willy Russell’s play â€Å"Educating Rita† only uses one main setting and two main characters. Some people may think that these would make the play seem boring. Russell actually makes the play quite interesting and entertaining by using dramatic devices such as the whiskey bottle and the telephone call. He does this to give us as much information as possible about the characters and their personalities. The play, which is set in the early 1980s, deals with the clashes between education and culture. It is about a middle-aged university lecturer called Frank. He is currently in a relationship with Julia. This relationship is not going too well as Frank is an alcoholic and would much rather go to the pub than go home to Julia. There is also Rita a 26-year-old woman who didn’t have a good education when she left school due to her parents’ working class background. She is now keen and eager to learn even though her husband Denny thinks that it is time for her to settle down and have children. Rita has set her sights higher than this. Rita is currently working as a hairdresser, but wants to achieve so much more than that, she wants an education. We get an idea of what sort of personality Frank has got by the conversation he has with Julia when she calls him to see when he was coming home. Although Frank had other Ideas, he was planning on going to the pub. We could see this by, â€Å" Yes I shall go to the pub† and â€Å"I don’t need determination to get me to the pub†. We get the impression that Frank does not care a great deal about Julia although it’s clear she loves him. When Frank was told that he was going to be tutoring Rita who is an open university student he was not very happy, the only reason he had took the job was so that he could make more money to spend on alcohol. Frank guessed that she was going to be â€Å"some silly woman†. This gives us the impression that Frank likes to use stereotypes and thinks that there is not much point. He soon realises that Rita has quite a lot to offer in regard to he uniqueness. The Playwright Russell wants to show how class affects education. When we first meet Rita we see that she is not the normal student Frank was expecting. She swears and uses informal colloquial language. This makes us think that Rita is not at all nervous about starting Open University and also makes her working class background obvious.

Communicative Language Teaching Essay

Communicative Language Teaching The aim of this unit †¢ To make you think about communicative approach to teaching languages †¢ To analyse the concept of communicative competence †¢ To reflect upon the communicative teaching techniques What do you have to do in this unit? †¢ Warming up discussions †¢ Input reading †¢ Self-assessment questions (SAQS) †¢ Exploratory tasks †¢ Integrated task Warming up discussion 0 Warm up the concept of a â€Å"communicative situation† (situation, in which it is necessary to communicate orally and/or through writing in order to achieve a certain goal). Produce a â€Å"mind map† of the concept listing most typical communicative situations in your own real world Communicative situations Input reading 1 The way towards communicative teaching Warming-up discussion 1.1 Rate in order of importance the items that the students need in order to master the language communicatively (more than one item can get one rank) |Items |Rating | |Vocabulary | | |Grammar | | |Pronunciation | | |Knowledge of typical situations | | |Target culture | | |Skills in speaking | | |Skills in writing | | |Skills in reading | | |Skills in listening | | |Non-verbal means of communication (gestures etc) | | |Knowledge of how to deal with people | | |Experience of making decisions in communicative situations | | |Experience in playing a role | | |Experience in problem-solving | | |Experience in playing communicative games | | Pre-communication methods The way towards communicative teaching has been a long and controversial one with advances and set backs. The focus of attention was gradually shifting from the language as a systematic code to the language as a means of communication with the search for an effective method of instruction and consideration of the learner’s personality. (The digest of teaching methods in this module is based on Richards, J., and Th. Rogers.1995. Approaches and Methods in language Teaching. CUP). Grammar translation (H.Olendorf) or Prussian method included detailed analysis of grammar rules, translating sentences and texts into and out of the target language, memorizing rules and manipulating morphology and syntax, reading and writing. Direct method (M.Berlitz) encouraged the use of foreign language in the classroom. Classroom teaching was conducted in the target language only. Learning process was mostly based on imitation and memorization. Oral approach or situational language teaching (Palmer, H. 1940. The Teaching of Oral English. Longman) was based on selection and organization of the â€Å"situations†. â€Å"Situations† were organized with the use of concrete things and pictures. They were used to introduce the new grammar structures. Audio-lingual method (Fries, Ch. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. University of Michigan Press) applied the principles of structural linguistics to language teaching. Pattern practice became a basic classroom technique. Audio-lingual method was the combination of structural linguistic theory and fundamentals of behaviorism (stimulus, response, reinforcement). The Natural Approach (Krashen, S.1981. Second language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. OUP) put emphasis on the exposure to language (comprehensible input) rather than formal exercises. The following hypotheses were put into the foundation of the Natural Approach: the acquisition/learning hypothesis (only natural-like acquisition can result in mastering the language while â€Å"learning† helps getting the knowledge about the language), the monitor hypothesis (explicit knowledge has only one function, that of monitoring correctness of the utterance), the natural order hypothesis (the acquisition of grammar structures proceeds in a predictable order), the input hypothesis (the relationship between the input and language acquisition shows that learners need comprehensible input), the affective filter hypothesis (learners with high motivation, self-confidence, low anxiety generally do better in language acquisition). SAQ 1.1 Match the following â€Å"methods† of instruction with their essential â€Å"features† |Method |Features | |Grammar-translation method |Imitation | |Direct method |Memorizing rules | |Oral approach |Motivating learners | |Audio-lingual method |Use of situations | |Natural approach |Memorizing patterns | Humanistic approach Warming-up discussion 1.1 Comment on the following revelation of a teacher: |†¦if a student really works hard, and yet there is a danger of this student failing a test, although he or she has studied | |intensively for it, then I cheat. I take a pen that has the same color ink as the student used to write the test and I correct| |some of the mistakes so that the student does not notice and I can give a positive mark. And then I follow this up with a lot | |of appraisal and support †¦ | (Puchta, H. 1999. Learners: belief, identity and success. IATEFL 1999. Edinburgh Conference Selections. P. 71-72) Humanistic approach emerged as a reaction to the behaviorist approach to teaching with the rigid teacher’s control over the learners behavior. The concern of humanistic tendencies was to enhance people’s self-actualization and their role in directing their own lives (Kelly, Maslow, Rogers cited in Roth. I. 1994. Introduction to Psychology. Volume 1. The Open University. P. 419). Humanistic approach to language teaching emphasized the value of developing whole learner’s personality, socialization of an individual in a group, creative activities with music, arts etc. It was further developed in community language teaching. The method was based on counseling techniques (Curran, C. 1976. Counseling-Learning: A Whole Person Model for Education. N.Y.) In lay terms, counseling is giving support to another person. This method was described as humanistic with self-actualization and secured self-esteem of the learners. The priorities of the method were to develop learners’ relationships in the group, to guarantee in learners the feeling of security and belonging to the group as well as asserting one’s personal identity. â€Å"Learner autonomy† became a new and much discussed concept. Affective learning and learner anxiety were taken seriously as an important factor of effectiveness. Instead of the formulaic knowledge (the product of behaviorism) teachers tried to develop in learners heuristic knowledge (After Fox, J. 1992. New Perspectives in Modern Language Learning. University of East Anglia. P. 87). Special attention was given to the issue of â€Å"debilitating anxiety†, which unlike â€Å"facilitating anxiety† could hinder and even block the process of language acquisition. As a result of the debilitating anxiety in the lesson the learners usually develop a â€Å"defense mechanism† against it. Some of them withdraw from the work of the class, make a game of a task, fidget and let their attention wander or plunge into the world of fantasy. They can challenge the teacher with the unacceptable behavior or passive aggression in the form of â€Å"silent protest†. Some learners accuse others of their own learning problems. As expression of protest the learners join subgroups of other failure-learners (See: Madeline, E. 1996. Understanding Second Language Learning Difficulties. Sage Publications). An important issue, which is tackled by the humanistic approach to teaching is the rejection of the learners by their teachers. The rejection of this type can be hidden and show itself indirectly. These teachers prefer not to look at the learners, which they dislike (gaze of avoidance). The whole teacher’s body movement is in the direction opposite to the learners they dislike. The teachers keep a longer physical distance with these learners and give them less verbal contacts and addresses. These learners are denied teacher’s supportive intervention and detailed feed-back that other learners normally enjoy. They are given a reduced teacher’s waiting time. Humanistic approach advocated â€Å"non-conflict†, â€Å"non-judgement† and â€Å"empathy† in the relations of the teacher and learners. The importance of the humanistic approach lies not just in the effectiveness of language learning but also in the development of the personality. Humanistic approach facilitates self-actualization of learners. Self-actualized people have a healthier psyche and are more capable of a creative non-stereotyped behavior. This helps them to identify easily with the group. They demonstrate a more accurate perception of the reality and accept it without unnecessary conflicts. They focus more on the cognitive problems and less on themselves. These learners possess the capacity for peak experiences (through love, music, art, nature etc.) and a greater aptitude for empathy with other people. They are able to see things other than in black and white. Exploratory task 1.1 Study the following descriptions of the learners and reflect on the possible reasons that explain their learning difficulties. Suggest recommendations to improve the teaching situation. What individual features of the learners have to be respected by the teacher? |Descriptions |Reflections |Recommended | |Frank is shy, withdrawn and obtuse. When called upon for| | | |an answer in class, he hesitates a lot and sometimes | | | |does not respond at all. When pushed, his answers are | | | |usually incorrect. However he does well with written | | | |homework. | | | |Mark is a delightful student. Very active and | | | |enthusiastic in class. He never has enough time to | | | |complete the task in class and rarely finishes the test | | | |on time | | | |Mary is inattentive and never follows explanations in | | | |class. She does not seem to understand the grammar | | | |rules. However, the next day she knows the rule | | | |perfectly. | | | |Clara is very motivated to study English but finds it | | | |meaningless to take part in communicative activities. | | | |After communicative lessons she feels frustrated. | | | |Vera is clever and likes to take part in discussions. | | | |However while talking she often makes slips such as | | | |forgetting, blurring or mixing up word endings. | | | (Some examples are adapted from Leaver, B. 1993. Teaching the Whole Class. The AGSI Press. P. 4-8) Intensification tendency Total Physical Response (TPR) is the combination in the teaching method of speech and action (Asher, J. 1969. The total physical response approach to second language learning. Modern Language Journal. 53:3-17). The method combined verbal rehearsal with motor activities. The Silent Way (Gategno, C. 1972. Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. N.Y.) was based on the premise that the teacher should be silent as much as possible in the classroom, while the learners will produce more language. A typical feature of the Silent Way is the use of color charts and rods as memorable images and signals to help in verbal responses. The proposition underlying this method of instruction was that learning is facilitated if the learners discover or create even with the minimal language rather than rehearse and remember. Suggestopedy (Lozanov, G. 1978. Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy. N.Y.) aimed at optimizing learning by music and rhythm, authoritative teacher’s behavior and â€Å"infantalisations† of learners, physical and psychological relaxation. The focus was on the memorization processes, which as claimed by the authors accelerated 25 times over conventional learning. Another example of exploiting resources of human psyche in teaching languages is neuro-linguistic programming (NLP). NLP is shaping one’s inner world through re-evaluating one’s experience and using the power of the word. It aims at opening up one’s inner resources as a way towards accelerated learning (Beaver. D. Lazy Language Learning). Exploratory task 1.2 Try to memorize the following groups of words using different techniques. Recall the words a minute after all the tasks have been done. Write the number of memorized words in the space provided and share the results in the group. Reflect on the reasons for diversity in the results (the meaning of the words should be made clear first) |Task 1 |Task 2 |Task 3 |Task 4 | |Memorize the words by marking |Memorize the words by |Memorizing the words in |Memorize the words by imagining| |rhythm with your hand |associating them with physical |complete relaxation |clearly and visualizing what | | |objects that you hold in your | |these words mean | | |hand | | | |Wary tortuous, dupe, hype, |Balk, upshot, slobber, freak, |Floss, tryst, mediocre, tassel,|Zap, trammel, largess, thud, | |lumber |virile |tacky |gullible | |Number of recalled words | | | | | | Communicative language teaching is based on a number of typical features of the communication process (Littlewood, W. 1981. Communicative language Teaching. CUP. Savignon,S. 1983. Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Mass. Widdowson, H. 1979. Teaching language as Communication. OUP). Language learning is understood as learning to communicate through communication. The emphasis is put on the meaningful and motivated use of language by the people who communicate in order to achieve a certain goal. Language for learning is derived from communicative experience in a variety of real world situations. Fluency is put over accuracy. Interactive learning is encouraged as the way towards acquiring communication skills. The learners are taught â€Å"negotiating the meaning† (working towards better understanding each other), and â€Å"using communication strategies† (e.g. circumlocution). Exploratory task 1.3 What features of communicative teaching can you detect in the following activities? |Activities |Features | |Find the differences between the pictures that you and your | | |partner has without looking at these pictures and only by asking | | |questions | | |Role play a job interview, in which you want the job as soon as | | |possible while the manager is taking time and is hoping to find a | | |better candidate | | |Agree or disagree with the given statements by marking them as | | |â€Å"true†, â€Å"false† or â€Å"debatable† and give reasons for every answer | | |Each of you have heard only a little bit of the announcement at | | |the airport. Put your bits of knowledge together to know what you | | |need. | | |Hold an opinion poll in the group by asking everybody questions | | |and report the results (every learner has a set of their own | | |questions) | | Communicative teaching is a way of teaching a language through communication. The way towards communicative teaching method can be traced in the chart below: |Method |Grammar-translation |Audio-lingual method |Natural approach |Communicative activities| |Subject |Language forms |Language patterns |Whole language |Human discourse | |Learning |Language analysis |Memorization |Exposure to the input |Communication experience| SAQ 1.2 Match the following tasks the methods |Tasks |Methods | |Listen to the tape and react to questions in the pauses |Grammar translation | |provided | | |Find the ways to translate the sentences in your native |Audio-lingual | |language | | |Prepare a group presentation and show it to the class |Natural | |Listen to the conversation and dramatize it |Communicative | Any method can be described as â€Å"result-oriented† or â€Å"process-oriented† with some teaching methods occupying an intermediate position. A result-oriented method advocates the idea of a final goal with the emphasis on its speediest achievement and the obligatory equal results achieved by all the learners. A process-oriented method focuses on the teaching/learning procedure with the individual pace of learning and the final results varying according to individual learner differences. Form-focused methods concentrate teachers’ and learners’ attention on the grammar forms of the target language. Form-defocused methods focus on speech patterns rather than on grammar structures. Exploratory task 1.4 Find the adequate place on the axes for the following method: grammar translation, oral approach, audio lingual and communicative (grammar-translation method has been done for you) Form-focused Y Grammar-translation method Result-oriented. x X Process-oriented y Form-defocused Communicative approach is used differently in different teaching cultures. â€Å"Teaching culture† is the collective teaching experience, beliefs and practices, which are typical of a certain community or society. Communicative approach is not universally relevant for different teaching cultures. The learners can question the effectiveness of the lesson during which they practice communication but do not learn anything concrete. â€Å"What have we learned during this lesson of incessant talk?†, is a typical question asked by the learners in Asian communities. In Japan languages are taught in the typically teacher-fronted and teacher-centered classrooms. A typical lesson consists of the teacher’s checking the learner’s sentence by sentence translations of a text. Chinese students can be unwilling to ask questions during a communicative lesson because students they do not want to interrupt other students or the teacher, it is better to ask after the lesson etc. (Coleman H. 1996.Society and the Language Classroom. CUP). A lesson of English in Russia often includes homework check up, presentation of the new material and reinforcement of the new material. The teacher, who signals when a particular learner is invited to speak, will regulate learners’ participation in the lesson (Millrood, R. 1999. How Native English Speakers Can be Better English Teachers in Russia. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol..5 No 1 1999. Ellis, G. 1996. How culturally appropriate is the communicative approach? ELTJ. Volume 50/3. P. 213-218) Exploratory task 1.5 Given below are the features of the BANA (British, Australian and North-American) teaching culture. What is to be found in your local teaching culture? |BANA teaching culture |Local teaching culture | |Learner-centered | | |Learner-autonomy | | |Focus on the â€Å"whole language† | | |Critical thinking | | |Inductive teaching | | Input reading 2 Communicative competence Warming up discussion 2.1 Brain-storm the concept of â€Å"communicative competence† i.e. the knowledge and skills a learner needs for successful communication and draw a â€Å"tree diagram† of this concept Communicative competence The idea of communicative competence started to develop with the construct of â€Å"linguistic competence†. Linguistic competence is understood as innate knowledge of language (Chomsky, N. 1986. Knowledge of Language: It’s Nature, Origin and Use. N.Y. P. 24. Aitchison, J. 1999. The Articulate Mammal. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. L.,N.Y.P.180-182. Harley,T. 1997. The Psychology of Language. Psychology Press. P.141). Linguistic competence is only part of what is needed for communication. Communicative competence encompasses the knowledge of how to use the language in the real world, without which the rules of grammar would be useless. (Hymes, D. 1971. On communicative Competence. University of Pennsylvania Press. Bachman, L. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. OUP. P.87). Communicative competence can be described as including grammar competence (knowledge of grammar rules, lexis and phonetics), pragmatic competence (knowledge of how to express a message), strategic competence (knowledge of how to express a message in a variety of circumstances), social-cultural competence (knowledge of social etiquette, national mind-set and values etc.) (another description of communicative competence can be found in Canale, M., and M. Swain. 1980. â€Å"Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing†. Applied Linguistics 1: 1-47). Communicative competence breaks down into the two major components of the knowledge: knowledge of the language and knowledge of how to achieve the goal of communication |Communicative competence | | | |Knowledge of the language |Knowledge of how to use the language | Competence is not the same as ability. In order to be able to communicate, people need psycho-physiological mechanisms, i.e. communicative skills (After Bachman, L. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. OUP. P. 84-85). Communication is the process of interpersonal interaction and requires the knowledge of social conventions i.e. the knowledge of rules about proper ways to communicate with people. In accordance with the social conventions, participants in communication perform communicative functions (to socialize, to inform, to persuade, to elicit information, to manipulate behavior and opinions, to perform rituals etc), communicative roles (leader, informer, witness, participant, catalyst, entertainer etc) (Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. OUP. P. 160). In order to perform these functions a speaker needs more than just the knowledge of the language. Exploratory task 2.1 Give examples of the knowledge you need for successful communication in a number of recent situations: |Knowledge for communication | |Rules of etiquette |Spoken language |Grammar and vocabulary | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | The process of communication is characterized with communicative strategies of achieving a goal through communication (Pollak A. Communicative strategies at work. NJ 1995). Success of communication depends very much on the knowledge of successful strategies chosen by the speakers. E.g. the Prince (in â€Å"The Prince and the Pauper† by M.Twain) was unable â€Å"to ask† because he was only competent in how to â€Å"give orders†. Successful strategies are known as the â€Å"four maxims† of good communication (Grice, H., 1975. Logic and conversation. Speech Acts. N.Y. Academic Press.) These maxims include quality (say only what is supported by evidence), quantity (say no more and no less than you think is needed), relevance (say what is relevant to the point of communication) and manner (present your ideas clearly an unambiguously) The four maxims of successful communication can be used in teaching how to communicate effectively (Brown, G. and G.Yule. 1983. Teaching the Spoken Language. CUP. P. 71) Exploratory task 2.2 Imagine that you want to borrow some money from the bank and have to explain to a bank clerk the reasons for taking the loan. Role-play your talk and let your group mates comment on what you say using the â€Å"four maxims†: |Maxims of communication |Comment | |Quality | | | | | |Quantity | | | | | |Relevance | | | | | |Manner | | | | | Communication strategies can be goal-oriented (having a particular goal in mind), partner-oriented (with the partner and his comprehension in mind, using negotiation of meaning, persuasion, self-correction, repetition, circumlocution etc) and circumstances-oriented (behaving according to the situation) (Wood B. Children and communication. NJ. 1981). In choosing a strategy the participants in communication can prefer either an achievement strategy (guessing, paraphrasing but achieving the goal) or a reduction strategy (co-operation, avoidance and sometimes giving up one’s goal partially or completely) (Bygate, M. 1987. Speaking. OUP). Exploratory task 2.3 Describe communicative strategies in the following conversation. One has been done for you |Conversation |Strategies | |Hello |Goal-oriented | |Can I have a return to London? |Partner-oriented | |Yeah. Are you coming back today? |Circumstances-oriented | |Erm †¦ I an not sure †¦ | | |A day’s return is 6.50. Otherwise it’s 8.80 | | |I’d better take a normal return | | |OK. That’s 8.80 then | | |Fine | | |Thanks. 1.20 change please | | |Thanks | | An integral part of communicative competence (the knowledge of how to communicate with people) is the non-verbal communication. It includes proxemics (physical distance and life space in the process of communication), kinesics (body language, gestures and postures), facial expression (smiles, eye-contact), haptics (the use of touch in communication), clothing and physical appearance in the process of communication (the concept of decency in clothing and physical appearance), oleactics (communication via smell), paralanguage (â€Å"um-m†, â€Å"uh-huh† etc). Many non-verbal expressions vary from culture to culture, and it is often the cause of cultural misinterpretation. E.g. a physical distance can be too close or somebody’s private space can be trespassed. Gestures and postures can be inappropriate, there can be a lack of smile and eye-contact. Touching somebody’s body during conversation can be taken as offensive. The dressing habit can be alien. Some smells (e.g. sweat or breath) can be found intolerable. Vocal confirmation of following the conversations (Aha! Etc.) can also be inappropriate. In some cultures humble bows are part of etiquette while others support a proud upright posture. Exploratory task 2.4 Describe non-verbal communication in your native culture |Features |Description | |Physical distance | | |Gestures | | |Use of touches | | |Decent clothing | | |Appropriate smell | | |Smiles | | |Eye contact | | Exploratory task 2.5 How would you say the following sentences without words, using the gestures only? |Communicative goal |Description of the gestures | |†It’s too hot.† | | |†I’m too cold!† | | |SSHHH! Be quiet.† | | |†Come here.† | | |†Come here quickly!† | | |†Stay back! It’s dangerous!† | | |†I’m impatient† | | |†I’m tired† | | |†What did you say?† | | Exploratory task 2.6 Mark as appropriate or inappropriate |Statements | Appropriate or not | |A/ A man not opening the door to the woman | | |B/ Man and woman walking together, woman carrying a heavy bag | | |C/ A man not helping a woman out of the bus | | |D/ A man not giving up the seat in the bus for a woman | | |E/ A person telling the police the truth about his friend’s involvement in the crime | | |F/ A married man living with his parents | | |G/ A young married couple paying more attention to themselves than to their newly born | | |child | | Exploratory task 2.7 Read the following description of the American character and draw comparisons with your home culture: |American culture |Learners’ home culture | |Physical appearance is a key to U.S. culture. Americans are obsessed with body hygiene. They | | |take many showers, wash their hair often and usually wear clothes only once. People who have body | | |odor, bad breath, oily hair, and do not wear fresh clothes every day may be rejected because of | | |their odor. Americans are likely to be extremely cautious when they meet a new person who seems to| | |want to get closely involved with them. â€Å"What does this person want?† they seem to be asking. | | |†How much of my time will it take? Will I be able to withdraw from the relationship if it gets too| | |demanding?† Americans are explicitly taught not to discuss religion or politics. Politics and | | |religion are thought to be â€Å"controversial†, and discussing a controversial topic can lead to an | | |argument. Americans are taught to avoid arguments, unlike other people who consider politics to | | |be an excellent topic for discussion and debate. | | Input reading 3 Communicative teaching Communicative teaching can be successful if the teaching techniques help to replicate authentic communication in the classroom Exploratory task 3.1 What makes real-world and classroom communication â€Å"authentic†, i.e. genuine and natural? List the features in the spaces below: |Authenticity of real-world communication |Authenticity of classroom communication | | | | | | | | | | Exploratory task 3.2 Do these activities help replicate authentic communication in the classroom? If, â€Å"yes, what makes the classroom communication â€Å"authentic† in each case? |Activity |Comment | |A bottle has been found in the sea with a letter in it. The text has been damaged | | |by water and is therefore blurred. In groups decide what the message says | | |You are to entertain guests before lunch. Role-play the conversation | | |You have always worn glasses but have now decided on switching to contact lenses. | | |Prove your decision | | |Each participant has a picture, which is part of the whole story. Without showing | | |your pictures talk to each other and make up the whole story | | |Write a letter of complaint to the hotel about their service and demand a | | |compensation for the spoiled holiday | | Communicative techniques A technique is a way for a teacher to organize a learner activity. The purpose of communicative techniques is to teach communication (After Littlewood, W. 1981. Communicative Language Teaching. CUP). Communicative techniques can develop in learners productive, receptive and interactive skills that are necessary for effective communication. Activities with listening and reading aim at developing in learners skills of receiving information. Activities with speaking and writing develop in learners skills of producing information. Both can be learner interactive and thus promote communication. Communicative techniques fall down into a number of groups: A. Language arts are oriented towards a communicative task but are not â€Å"communicative† in themselves. B. Language for a purpose is what the learners might need to learn how to request information, how to change somebody’s behavior or train of thought, how to co-ordinate efforts in a team, how to express one’s emotions etc. C. Communicative games can be alternative communicative techniques with a challenge, rules, procedure and winners. D. Personal language use develops in learners the skill of expressing one’s own attitudes and values. E. Theatre art develops communicative skills in simulations such as role-plays. F. Debating society teaches problem-solving skills. G. Beyond the classroom activities imply contacts with the native speakers and using the mass media available to the learners and relevant to their level of language studies (Adapted from Savignon, S. cited in Berns, M. 1990. Contexts of Competence. Social and Cultural Considerations in Communicative Language Teaching. N.Y. P. 88-89) SAQ 3.1 Match the following techniques and their features |Techniques |Features | |Language arts |Exposure to the whole language | |Language for a purpose |Cause-and-consequence reasoning | |Communicative games |Attaining a communicative goal | |Personal language |Winning in a competing activity | |Theatre art |Presenting one’s case | |Debating society |Vocabulary and grammar build-up | |Beyond the classroom |Taking up a communicative role | Some activities are more associated with reading and listening (receptive skills), while others are more often used with speaking and writing (productive skills). Information gap is organized to promote speaking activities. Information gap is a situation when a participant or a group possess the information, which others do not have, while others command the information that the other party is missing. E.g. a student in a pair with the other student might have the train timetable for odd numbers, while her partner might have the train timetable for even numbers. Their task is to use communication for finding out complete information on how the train runs. Information gap can take the format of an opinion gap when the participants differ in their opinions. The gap is filled in the course of active communication. Any activity with an information gap can be turned into a communicative game if there are rules to name the winner. Information gap is a frequent technique used in order to organize a communicative game. E.g. you have new neighbors. They can tell you about themselves only what is given on their role cards. Try to guess their professions. Ask any questions. Direct questions about professions are excluded. A popular speaking activity is reading from cues. It is organized when the participants write information about themselves on sticky labels in the form of separate words, dates, names etc. Other students ask questions trying to find as much as possible about the person, To achieve this goal they have to think first what a date on the sticky label might mean and ask a question like â€Å"Were you married in 1991?†, â€Å"May be you got your first job in 1991?† etc. Reading and speaking processes can be boosted by a â€Å"matching† activity, in which the participants are to match pictures and texts, pictures and pictures, texts and texts (both oral and written) by using questions. Jig-saw reading activity is organized most often with the texts that are meant for reading or listening (â€Å"jig-saw† reading and â€Å"jig-saw† listening). A text is divided into several parts. Every participant has access to only one part of the oral or written text. They ask each other questions and provide information to pool the parts of the text together and to know the contents of the whole text. Another variant is a jig-saw listening when each participant or a small group listens to only some information as part of the whole. These pieces can be brought together only in the course of active communication efforts. Another activity for reading is sequencing (re-ordering). The task consists in asking the learners to restore the logical order between parts of the text. This can produce an â€Å"opinion gap† and boost communication. Productive skills of speaking and writing are developed in simulations. A simulation means that an episode of the real world is reproduced in the classroom environment in the form of the role-play, discussion (problem solving), piece of writing or a project work. SAQ 3.2 Give examples of communicative simulations that can be used to develop productive communicative skills in learners |Simulation of productive skills |Examples of activities | |Simulation of speaking | | | | | |Simulation of writing | | | | | An important aspect of communicative teaching is classroom interaction. This form of communication develops between the learners and the teacher. Learners’ interaction is organized in pairs, small groups, moving circles, parallel lines of pairs etc. Classroom interaction is a factor in creating a communicative classroom atmosphere and successful communicative teaching Exploratory task 3.2 Recall your own experience of classroom interaction and complete the evaluation form. What can be done to improve interaction in the classroom? |Classroom communication |Usually |Sometimes |Never | |1. The teacher asks the class questions. | | | | |2. Students volunteer to raise problems for discussion | | | | |3. Students say their opinions freely in class. | | | | |4. Teachers ask students to express their opinions. | | | | |5. Students speak only when the teacher calls on them. | | | | |6. Students tell the teacher in class when they don’t understand. | | | | |7. Students listen passively when the teacher talks. | | | | |8. Students listen passively when classmates talk. | | | | |9. Students speak loud enough for the whole class to hear and address| | | | |the classmates. | | | | |10. Students consult with classmates before answering teacher. | | | | |11. Students are afraid to make mistakes. | | | | |12. Teachers encourage students to risk making mistakes and to speak | | | | |freely | | | | |13. Students ask for the teacher’s opinions on the problem in class. | | | | |14. Teachers organize students’ interaction in pairs, small groups, | | | | |moving circles, parallel lines. | | | | |15. Students copy answers from others during tests. | | | | |16. Students coach each other for a test | | | | |17. Teachers are open to informal communication | | | | Communicative teaching is often organized in the three-phase framework. Three-phase framework means subdivision of the teaching process into three phases: pre-activity, while-activity and post activity. Pre-activity is organized to arouse interest in the learners towards the main task, to motivate performance, to activate in learners their prior knowledge and to prepare them for the language that can be necessary to perform the main task. While-activity is organized as oral or written communication and is based on engaging the learners in the communicative tasks. Post-activity is reflection on the ideas and language that was produced during the main activity. This phase also includes additional language drill and integration with other skills. The three phases of teaching are shown in the table: |Phases |Procedures | | |Teacher |Learners | |Pre-activity |Increasing motivation for the activity. Activation of prior knowledge in learners. Language | | |preparation. | | | | |While-activi ty |Oral or written communication. Information gap techniques. Simulation techniques. | | | | | |Reflection on the language and ideas produced during the â€Å"while-activity† phase. Focusing on | |3. Post-activity |the language. Integration with other skills. | (Sheils, J. 1988. Communication in the Modern Language Classroom. Strasbourg) Exploratory task 3.3 Match the following communicative tasks with the pre- while- or post-activity phases |Tasks |Phases | |Write down all the reasons you can think of for getting married|Pre-activity | |A husband wants his wife to stay at home because he is earning |While-activity | |more than enough. The wife wants to be self-reliant. What |Post-activity | |should they do? | | |Agree or disagree with the following statements †¦ | | |Interview a working woman and a housewife (a pensioner). Report| | |on the findings | | |Look at these pictures of the families. Which family seems | | |happiest and why? | | |Write an essay, †Coral gardens of family life† | | |Think of positive and negative words when you think of family | | |life | | Integrated task †¢ Give a rationale for communicative language teaching †¢ Illustrate the tasks for teaching pronunciation, grammar and lexis (indicate the source) †¢ Describe the tasks for teaching speaking and writing, listening and reading †¢ Work out a three-phase framework for any one of the tasks †¢ Ask your peers to evaluate your â€Å"three-phase framework task† according to the evaluation form and attach it |Points of analysis |Comment | |The explanations to tasks are quite clear | | |The task motivates communication | | |The task provides information gap for the learners | | |The task simulates the real world | | |The task develops language knowledge in learners | | |The task develops world knowledge in learners | | |The task creates a reasonable challenge for the learners | | |The three phases of the task are quite logical | | |The tasks provide for a good communicative practice | | Answer keys SAQ 1.1 1B 2A 3D 4E 5C SAQ 1.2 1B 2A 3D 4C SAQ 3.1 1F 2C 3D 4E 5G 6B 7A SAQ 3.2 |Information gap |Simulation | |Matching, jig-saw, interviews, reading the cues, communicative |Role-play, problem-solving, socialization, project work etc. | |games etc | | Exploratory task 1.1 1 Frank is a learner who needs more time to think the task over. 2 Mark can’t stand the time limits because he is usually overactive. 3 Mary prefers working with examples and deriving a rule from them. 4 Clara is a â€Å"deductive learner† and prefers working with grammar rules. 5. Vera has problems with her phonological development and needs special attendance to her needs Exploratory task 1.4 Oral approach YX; audio-lingual xy; communicative yX Exploratory task 1.5 1 Teacher-centered, 2 learner-dependence, 3 focus on form and text, 4 memorization, 5 deductive teaching from rule to examples Exploratory task 2.3 A 2 3 5 7 9; B 1 8 10; C 3 4 6; Exploratory task 2.8 1 test-tube babies, 2 AIDS, 3 Nuclear power Exploratory task 3.3 1A 2B 3A 4C 5A 6C 7A Glossary Audio-lingual method is the way to teach a foreign language through intense repetitions of language patterns Communicative approach is a theory of teaching and learning foreign languages that recognizes the primacy of communication as the goal and the media of instruction Communicative competence is the knowledge that is necessary for successful communication Communicative method is a way to teach a foreign language through communication for the purpose of communication Communicative principles are guiding rules of instruction in the framework of communicative approach Communicative situation is a set of circumstances, in which it is necessary to use the language for communication in order to achieve the desired goal Communicative strategies are the means and maneuvers of communication to deal with the goal, partner and circumstances Communicative techniques are the devices to organize teaching in compliance with communicative principles Community language teaching is a teaching approach that emphasizes the importance of students’ co-operation, support and interaction Direct method is the way to teach a foreign language by switching over exclusively to the target language in the classroom and intense grammar structure practicing Grammar-translation method is a way to teach a foreign language with the help of contrastive native and target grammar analysis Humanistic approach is an education theory that recognizes the necessity to facilitate free and creative development of the personality Information gap is a technique to give the students complementary information, which they have to pool together in the process of communication in order to fulfil the task Interactive learning is instruction with the tasks that can’t be fulfilled by the isolated students but require co-operation Natural approach is a way to teach a foreign language through massive exposure to the comprehensible language input in the classroom Neuro-linguistic programming is a teaching way that combines mental imagery with the language Non-verbal communication uses physical distance between the participants, facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, appearance and clothes, smell and perfume etc. Oral approach is a way to teach a foreign language through oral introduction and practice of the language structures with the help of objects and pictures to create â€Å"situations† Process-oriented teaching focuses on the motivation and involvement in the activities with the expectation of different results in learners according to their aptitude Result-oriented teaching is the shortest way for all the learners in the classroom to achieve the same result Silent way is a method a teaching that attempts to combine creative thinking with the minimum of language resour ces available to the learners (using colored rods etc) Simulation is a technique to replicate in the classroom real world situations for the purposes of communicative language teaching Suggestopedy is a teaching way attempting to utilize the hidden cognitive resources in students through relaxation, music and elements of suggestive therapy Total physical response is a way of teaching that combines language rehearsals with physical activities References and further reading Aitchison, J. 1999. The Articulate Mammal. An Introduction to Psycholinguistics. L.,N.Y. Asher, J. 1969. The total physical response approach to second language learning. Modern Language Journal. 53:3-17 Bachman, L. 1990. Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing. OUP Beaver. D. Lazy Language Learning Berns, M. 1990. Contexts of Competence. Social and Cultural Considerations in Communicative Language Teaching. N.Y. Brown, G. and G. Yule. 1983. Discourse Analysis. CUP Bygate, M. 1987. Speaking. OUP Canale, M., and M. Swain. 1980. â€Å"Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing†. Applied Linguistics 1: 1-47 Chomsky, N. 1986. Knowledge of Language: It’s Nature, Origin and Use. N.Y. Coleman H. 1996.Society and the Language Classroom. CUP Cook, G. 1989. Discourse. OUP. Crystal, D. 1992. Introducing Linguistics. L. Penguin. Curran, C. 1976. Counseling-Learning: A Whole Person Model for Education. N.Y. Ellis, G. 1996. How culturally appropriate is the communicative approach? ELTJ. Volume 50/3 Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. CUP Fox, J. 1992. New Perspectives in Modern Language Learning. University of East Anglia Fries, Ch. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language. University of Michigan Press Gategno, C. 1972. Teaching Foreign Languages in Schools: The Silent Way. N.Y. Haines, S. 1995. Projects for the EFL Classrooms. Longman Harley,T. 1997. The Psychology of Language. Psychology Press Hymes, D. 1971. On communicative Competence. University of Pennsylvania Press Krashen, S. 1981. Second language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. OUP Leaver, B. 1993. Teaching the Whole Class. The AGSI Press Littlewood, W. 1981. Communicative language Teaching. CUP Lozanov, G. 1978. Suggestology and Outlines of Suggestopedy. N.Y. Madeline, E. 1996. Understanding Second Language Learning Difficulties. Sage Publications Millrood, R. 1999. How Native English Speakers Can be Better English Teachers in Russia. The Internet TESL Journal. Vol..5 No 1 1999. Nunan, D. 1993. Discourse Analysis. Penguin Books. Palmer, H. 1940. The Teaching of Oral English. Longman Pollak A. Communicative strategies at work. NJ 1995 Richards, J., and Th. Rogers.1995. Approaches and Methods in language Teaching. CUP Roth. I. 1994. Introduction to Psychology. Volume 1. The Open University Savignon, S. 1983. Communicative Competence: Theory and Classroom Practice. Mass. Sheils, J. 1988. Communication in the Modern Language Classroom. Strasbourg Widdowson, H. 1979. Teaching Language as Communication. OUP Wood B. 1981. Children and communication. NJ.

Oopp Lab Work

Create a class account that maintains AC_no, name, and balance. Perform deposit, withdrawal and statement print operations. (statement print must print all the transactions that has taken place so for – use structures inside the class to maintain the details about Create a class that holds the details of the mobile phone like brand, mime, no of Simi cards, hone numbers etc. . Allow user to login with their mobile no. Use a function that sends a message from that mobile. Maintain the details of the message as a static member inside the send message function and display each time all the messages sent from that mobile, (b) 4. Create a class ID_card that maintains the details In an ID card. Perform insert, update, delete and display operation through functions that takes input through reference parameter. (c) Create a C++ program that takes employee details like ID, first name, last name, age and address.Create a class for student {name, course, regular/part-time, address}. Use f riend function to check that a student with same name and address can't be a regular student as well as an employee. (c) 6. Synthesize a C++ program that has two classes (one for employee and one for student), have a separate class for address (with door no. Street name, city, state) and reuse address both for employee and student. Perform insert, delete and display operations by taking choice of person (employee or student) from the user. Allow user to have more than one address also.Create an class that stores details about the computer (Assembled/branded, RAM, HAD, processor speed, price etc. ,). Use constructors to initialize the object and a destructor that deducts the count of object each time the object is passed to destroy function. Also use copy constructor to create a system with the configuration same as that's of an existing system. (b) 8. Create a savings_account class that maintains the details of customers like name, phone number. Cancan. Balance. Ensure that the vari ables are protected with proper specifies such that only the user's personal details can be modified directly.Perform deposit, withdrawal, statement print, and pin change operations by checking for minimum balance and other conditions. Create a new account for the same user by copying the basic details of the user using a copy constructor. (c) † 9. Create a class which maintains information like surname, password, age, mailed, phone number, accepted friends list, etc†¦ Declare a friend function Inside the class. Create 3 users such that the first user is friend with 2 and 3 (update friend list of user 1 with user names of 2 and 3). If the users logs in, he should see the personal Information